The ancient Emirate of Adamawa was a part of the Sokoto Caliphate, the politically dominant empire of the Central Sudan in the 19th century. Adamawa was known as The wild east of the Caliphate, were Fulani settlers occupied the vast highlands of Northern Cameroon and provided slaves for the empire from the neighboring areas.
One assumes that nomadic Fulani started to leave Futa Toro in Senegal, looking for new pastures and water for their herds around the year 1000. Following the next four-five centuries, they had spread over the most of the Sudan-zone west of Lake Chad. By the 16th century they had established themselves at Macina (upstream from the Niger Bend) and were proceeding eastward into Hausaland. Some settled in the 19th century at Adamawa (in the northern Cameroons). Many of the Fulani continued to pursue a pastoral life; some, however, particularly in Hausaland, gave up their nomadic pursuits, settled into existing urban communities.
The oldest written sources mentioning the Fulani in the Baghirmi empire (southeast
of Lake Chad) are dated to the 16th century. Most probably, the Fulani were welcomed
by local ruler, as they brought with them cattle and constituted a market for
agricultural products. The groups of nomadic Fulani had to pay a tribute in cattle
to the local ruler, thus recognizing his authority. With time, a group of sedentary
Fulani began to emerge. These often distinguished themselves as educated Muslims
and were highly appreciated by the local rulers for their services as civil servants,
teachers and legal advisers.
The Fulani came into contact with Islam already before their emigration from Senegal.
Conversion to Islam was especially widespread amongst the sedentary Fulani, while
the Bororo (nomadic Fulani) were less receptive to Islam. Amongst
the Bororo,
Islam never created profound changes of mentality, but laid as a thin shell above
the traditional cultural heritage, and this is pretty much how the situation remains
today in the small remaining societies of Bororos. The sedentary Fulani in Futa-Tooro,
Futa-Jallon, Masina, as well as those in Haussaland,
were strongly influenced by Islam.
The Caliphate of Sokoto
Adamawa may be seen as the last link in a chain of empires being Islamized in
the Sudan-belt during the last grand movement of Muslim expansion in Africa. With
the outbreak of jihad in the West African Futa-Jallon (in modern Guinea) in 1725
stated the age of an Islam more militant and fundamentalist, promoted by the Fulani,
sharply contrasting the earlier spread of Islam by peaceful Muslim traders.
Haussaland (in modern Northern Nigeria) was loose groupings of nominally Muslims,
small haussa kingdoms. They were united by a common language and culture, and
the area was an important center of trade and education, politically and economically
highly developed. It is assumed that the Fulani began to settle here in the 15th
century. A relatively high proportion of these Fulani establishing themselves
in the Haussa towns were educated Muslims, assimilating well into Haussa culture.
In 1804, Fulani in Haussaland rebelled against their Haussa rulers. The rebellion
was led by the Fulani Uthman dan Fodio, one of the most recognized
Muslim intellectuals of the region. It originated in the public denunciation of
the religious and administrative circumstances in the Haussa kingdom of Gobir
by dan Fodio. Haussa aristocracy, claiming to rule in accordance
with the principles of Islam, were in reality only nominally Muslims. As dan Fodio's
denunciation only led to further oppression of faithful Muslims, he called on
a rebellion. As the appeal for conquest spread all over Haussaland, Fulani and
other Muslims gathered around dan Fodio and participated in the fighting. Dan
Fodio led them
to success. Already in 1810, almost all the Haussa kingdoms were subjugated. Muslim
Fulani empires were established and call emirates. The caliphate of the Fulani
was to become the biggest and most influential empire of Central Africa in the
19th century.
The Emirate of Adamawa
Independently of the conquest in Haussaland, a local Fulani rebellion took place
in the so-called Fombina — the southern country (referring to the lands in the
south of the Bornu empire, nowadays Northern Adamawa). For some time, a modest
group of Fulani had been settled in towns and villages ruled by non-Muslims, so-called
Kirdis. The areas of the Diamaré plains and the Benue lowland were excellent
pastures and attracted more and more Bororos. Around 1800, the
local Fulani rebelled against the ruling Gisiga-Kirdi, and were
sustained by the neighboring Muslim Sultanate of Mandara. Based on their strong
cavalry and their strategic methods, they soon conquered the urban centers, and
about 1810 the main town of the Gisiga,
Marva (Fulfulde: Maroua) fell into their hands.
As early as one year after the appeal of holy war by dan Fodio,
in 1805, the mobido Adama of the Ba clan received
the white flag of the jihad, and the title as chief of command against the Kirdi
in Fombina. Adama thus received the title of Lamido Fombina or emir, as he normally
is called in European literature. He established his headquarters in Gurin by
the River Faro, but later moved it to Yola by the River Benue in 1841. Fombina
later became known as Adamawa, named after its founder Adama.
The new alliance with the Fulani from Haussaland and the religious dimension of
dan Fodio's jihad gave new force to the rebellion of the Fombina Fulani..
About 1850, the conquest of Adamawa in general was fulfilled, with some 40 established
lamidates and most of the indigenous population subdued by Fulani rule or living
as refugees in marginized areas.
The large number of lamidates were to develop in the decades before European colonial
conquest.
From the 1850s onward, European explorers visited Adamawa; in the 1890s, the
British Royal Niger Company, French and German explorers competed for obtaining
treaties with the Emir (Lamido). In 1901 Britain and Germany partitioned the Emirate,
the larger part of it became part of German Kamerun, the smaller western part,
with the capital Yola, part of British Northern Nigeria. The Germans established
a Military Residenture in Garua, close to Yola, where they stationed one company
of soldiers, obviously to discourage the Adamawans from rising in revolt.
After 1901, the Emirs at Yola had to accept British domination; Bobo Ahmadu Ahmadu
was deposed and exiled in 1909. The larger part of their territory, now located
in German Kamerun was lost to their influence, only a part of it being granted
to Britain by the League of Nations in 1922 as a part of the mandate of British
Cameroons.
Independent Emirate |
Emirate of Yola under British Protection |
||
| 1848-1872 | Lawal | 1901-1909 |
Bobo Ahmadu |
| 1872-1890 | Sanda | 1909-1910 |
Iya |
| 1890-1901 | Zubeiru | 1910-1924 |
Abba |
1924-1928 |
Muhammadu Bello |
||
1928-1946 |
Mustafa |
||
1946-1953 |
Ahmadu |
||
Lamidos
House of Modibo Adama
Modibo Adama
In the early 1800's Modibo Adama brought the news of
Usman dan Fodio's jihad in Sokoto. Modibo encouraged
Fulbe from the area to join in the jihad or holy war. Dan Fodio was asked to
come and help, and Fulbe families joined in the fight. They enslaved or drove
out all non-Fulbes. The ruler of the area lived in Yola (present-day Nigeria),
was called a lamidate, and had heads of families as chiefs under him. This jihad
made the Fulbe the rulers of the area, and they named it Adamawa after Modibo
Adama, their first leader.
Ahmadu Ahidjo. A Pullo of common origin, he was also a product of the French school; he tried to get northerners from Cameroon to be more active in politics.
Languages
Contrary to the rest of the Sokoto Caliphate, where Haussa became the pre-dominant
language, even among the Fulani, Fulfulde is the lingua
franca of the region, although different Kirdi languages were prevalent in
certain areas. In the lamidates of Ngaoundéré and
Tibati, the Mbum language became as widespread as the Fulfulde, even in the royal
courts. Nowadays, French, and to a certain degree English, has taken over the
role as lingua franca in Adamawa.
Traditions
The Fulani nomads live in wet season camps while planting and harvesting. The
pastures are lush and green, and the cattle graze freely. These camps consist
of beehive-like huts made of woven twigs, leaves, and grass. During the dry seasons
they camp in portable huts, moving the cattle or sheep to well-watered lands in
the flood plains.
Adamawa Fulani men hunt, trade livestock, and tend to the herds. While the older
men exercise the leadership of the tribes, it is the duty of the younger men to
move the herds. Young boys are responsible for helping their older brothers with
the herds. The women usually milk the cattle and sell butter in the markets.
The Fulani are a proud people who teach their young children to have tribal dignity.
Fulani children are required to love their mothers and respect their elders. They
are also taught to strictly hold on to important Pulaaku values such as generosity,
honesty, and modesty.
While Fulani children are still infants, marriages are arranged for them by their
parents. When a boy is initiated into manhood, he moves into a separate hut. This
hut will eventually become the home of his fiancé. Young girls look forward
to being married, since this will give them a higher social status. Having many
children will also bring them honor.
The Fulani have an unusual way of initiating boys into manhood. The young boys
must beat each other across the chest with walking sticks while showing no signs
of pain. Throughout the rest of their lives, these scars are proudly shown as
signs of courage.
There are many taboos within the Fulani culture. For example, they are forbidden
to call a first son or daughter by name. When in public, wives must stay at a
distance, but are watched over by their husbands. Goat meat may not be eaten and
beef is only eaten at formal ceremonies.
Culture Shock (nderkaaku)
The Revolt of Young Fulani Herders in Adamawa
With the changes introduced by the modern currents, the Fulani of the Ngaoundéré area
in Adamawa are increasingly distraught by the changing relationships between parents
and children. When they become young adults, boys do not obey their fathers anymore.
They escape for a life of adventure, called nderkaaku in the local Fulani language.
The parents are offended by this situation, even though it has taken place for
many generations. This is especially true for a family without cattle. To seek
their own fortune elsewhere, the young men have to leave home. The Inheritance
law which favors the eldest is also another source of rebellion.
But the most pervasive influence is the city life. When the young men take the
cattle to the urban markets, they learn about modern life and become further distant
from their rural families. Overall though, despite the family disapproval, this
rebellion is seen as inevitable changes which may even contribute to the enrichment
of the family and to a dynamic Fulani Diaspora.
Glossary of Terms
Abstract from: Rainer Chr. Hennig. Rise and Fall of the Adamawa Emirate (translated introduction to thesis, 1993). Jamtan
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